Appendix C

Glossary of Key Terms

A book like this one uses many technical terms — some from Hebrew and Greek, some from philosophy, some from systematic theology, and some that I have borrowed from other authors who shape the conversation about hell, the afterlife, and salvation. I have tried to define these terms clearly inside each chapter where they appear. Still, I know how easy it is to forget what a word meant ten chapters ago, especially when several of the terms sound similar. This glossary is a quick-reference tool. Each entry gives a short, plain-English definition (usually one or two sentences) so you can look something up without flipping back through hundreds of pages.

A

Aiōn / Aiōnios / Olam. The Greek words aiōn (αἰών) and aiōnios (αἰώνιος), and the Hebrew word olam (עוֹלָם), are usually translated "eternal" or "everlasting" — but a strong line of biblical scholarship argues that their primary meaning is "age" or "age-long," referring to a long but bounded period of time, often the coming age. (See Chapter 20.)

Annihilationism. The view that the unsaved will not suffer forever but will eventually be destroyed and cease to exist. It is the most common form of conditional immortality.

Apokatastasis. A Greek word (ἀποκατάστασις) meaning "restoration of all things," drawn from Acts 3:21. In theological discussion it names the universalist hope that God will eventually restore all rational creatures to fellowship with Himself.

Apostles' Creed. One of the oldest and most widely used Christian creeds, growing out of the early baptismal confessions of the church. Of special importance for this book is its line "He descended to the dead" (or, in older versions, "He descended into hell"), which affirms Christ's descent into the realm of the dead. (See Chapter 13.)

Atonement. The doctrine that Christ's life, death, and resurrection — especially His death on the cross — reconcile sinful human beings to God. Various theories explain how the atonement works (substitutionary, ransom, Christus Victor, governmental, and others), but all agree that Christ's saving work is the basis on which any person, in any era, can be saved.

B

Biblical Universalism. See Universalism, Biblical/Conservative.

C

Choice Model (of Hell). A view in which the unsaved are not so much sentenced to hell by God as they freely refuse heaven. C. S. Lewis's famous line — "the doors of hell are locked on the inside" — captures the idea, which has been developed in detail by philosophers like Jerry Walls.

Christology. The branch of Christian theology that studies the person and work of Jesus Christ — His full deity, His full humanity, His incarnation, His atoning death, His resurrection, and His ongoing role as Lord and Savior.

Conditional Immortality. The view that immortality is not a built-in feature of the human soul but a gift granted only to those who are saved. Those who finally and irrevocably reject Christ are eventually destroyed (annihilated) rather than tormented forever. This is my own working position. (See Chapter 34.)

Conservative Universalism. See Universalism, Biblical/Conservative.

Contingent Universalism. See Universalism, Contingent/Hopeful.

D

Descensus ad Inferos. A Latin phrase meaning "the descent to the lower regions" (sometimes rendered "the descent into hell"). It refers to Christ's journey to the realm of the dead between His crucifixion and resurrection — confessed in the Apostles' Creed and grounded biblically in passages such as 1 Peter 3:18–4:6 and Ephesians 4:8–10. (See Chapters 11–13.)

Divine Presence Model. A view of hell developed by R. Zachary Manis (and resonating with certain Eastern Orthodox patristic voices) in which both heaven and hell are simply the experience of God's unmediated presence. The same divine love that is heaven for the saved is hell for those who continue to reject Him. (See Chapters 23–24.)

E

Emeth. A Hebrew word (אֱמֶת) usually translated "truth," "faithfulness," or "reliability." It describes God's unwavering trustworthiness and is often paired with hesed in Old Testament descriptions of His character.

Eschatology. The branch of theology that studies the "last things" — death, the intermediate state, the second coming of Christ, the bodily resurrection, the final judgment, the new heavens and new earth, heaven, and hell.

Eternal Conscious Torment (ECT). The traditional view that the unsaved will suffer conscious punishment in hell forever and ever, without end or hope of release. This has been the dominant Western view for many centuries, though it has been challenged from within evangelicalism by conditionalists, universalists, and proponents of a "divine presence" reading of hell.

Exclusivism (Restrictivism). The view that one must hear about Jesus Christ and consciously place personal trust in Him during this earthly life in order to be saved. On this view, there is no opportunity for salvation after death, and those who never hear the gospel are simply lost.

G

Gehenna. A Greek word (γέεννα) used in the New Testament for the place or state of final judgment. It comes from the Valley of Hinnom outside Jerusalem, a place once associated with child sacrifice and later used as a refuse dump. Gehenna is not the same as Hades; in this book, it refers to the realm of final judgment, which I closely connect with the Lake of Fire. (See Chapter 21.)

Great White Throne Judgment. The final judgment described in Revelation 20:11–15, at which the dead are judged and those whose names are not in the book of life are cast into the lake of fire. On my working position, this judgment is the last opportunity for the unsaved to receive Christ. (See Chapter 36.)

H

Hades. The Greek word (ᾅδης) for the realm of the dead in the New Testament — the intermediate place where the unsaved dead reside between physical death and the final judgment. It is a temporary "waiting place," not the same as Gehenna or the Lake of Fire. (See Chapters 21 and 35.)

Harrowing of Hell. A traditional name for Christ's descent into Hades between His death and resurrection, during which (in the historic Christian imagination) He preached the gospel to the dead, defeated the powers of darkness, and led the righteous out of captivity. (See Chapters 11–13.)

Hesed. A rich Hebrew word (חֶסֶד) often translated "lovingkindness," "steadfast love," or "covenant faithfulness." It describes the loyal, persistent, undeserved love God shows to His people — the kind of love that does not let go even when it is not returned.

Hopeful Universalism. See Universalism, Contingent/Hopeful.

I

Imago Dei. Latin for "image of God." The doctrine, drawn from Genesis 1:26–27, that every human being is created in God's image and therefore possesses inherent dignity, worth, and capacity for relationship with God.

Inclusivism. The view that salvation is only through the atoning work of Jesus Christ, but that some who never hear the gospel may still be saved by responding in faith to whatever revelation they have received. Inclusivism affirms the necessity of Christ's work while denying that explicit faith in His name is always required during this earthly life. (See Chapter 31.)

Intermediate State. The condition of human persons between physical death and the bodily resurrection at the end of the age. I affirm a conscious intermediate state — the soul or spirit continues to exist, is aware, and (for the unsaved) may still be reached by God's grace. (See Chapters 9 and 35.)

K

Kolasis vs. Timōria. Two Greek words for "punishment." Aristotle famously distinguished kolasis (κόλασις), which is corrective punishment aimed at the offender's improvement, from timōria (τιμωρία), which is retributive punishment aimed at satisfying the one who was wronged. The New Testament uses kolasis (not timōria) in Matthew 25:46 — a detail that figures into discussions of whether the punishment in view is purposeful and reformative. (See Chapter 22.)

L

Lake of Fire. The final state of judgment described in Revelation 19–20. I follow certain Eastern Orthodox thinkers in viewing it as God's full, unfiltered presence and love — experienced as joy by the saved and as torment by the unrepentant — until the evil within each person is finally consumed. (See Chapters 23–26.)

N

Natural Consequence Model. A view in which the suffering of hell is the natural result of being unrepentant in God's holy presence, rather than an external punishment imposed on top of the situation. This model overlaps with the Divine Presence Model and the Choice Model.

Near-Death Experience (NDE). A profound experience reported by some people who have come close to death — or been clinically dead and then resuscitated. Typical features include out-of-body awareness, encounters with deceased relatives or beings of light, life reviews, and a powerful sense of love and peace. (See Chapter 5.)

Necessitarian Universalism. The view that God must save all because of His nature, often paired with the denial of libertarian free will. I reject this version of universalism because I believe it overrides genuine human freedom; I take seriously, however, the gentler form of universalism that holds that God's love may finally win all without overriding any. (See Chapter 33.)

Nephesh. A Hebrew word (נֶפֶשׁ) often translated "soul," "life," or "living being." Its range of meaning includes the whole person, the seat of life, and at times something close to "the self." (See Chapter 6.)

Nonreductive Physicalism. The view that human persons are entirely physical (there is no immaterial soul) but that mental states are not simply reducible to brain states. Some Christian thinkers (e.g., Nancey Murphy, Joel B. Green) hold this view as an alternative to substance dualism. I argue, against them, that the biblical and philosophical evidence still favors substance dualism. (See Chapters 7–8.)

O

Olam. See Aiōn / Aiōnios / Olam.

P

Patristic. Pertaining to the Church Fathers — the influential Christian writers of roughly the first eight centuries, whose work shaped the development of Christian doctrine. (See Chapters 27–28 and Appendix D.)

Physicalism. The view that human persons are entirely physical (material) beings, with no separate immaterial soul. On this view, what we call the "soul," "mind," or "self" is reducible to (or wholly dependent on) the body and brain. I argue against physicalism throughout Part II. (See Chapters 6–8.)

Pluralistic Universalism. The view that all religions are essentially equal paths to God and that all will be saved regardless of any specific faith commitment. This is not the position the book defends; biblical universalism, by contrast, holds that all are ultimately saved through personal faith in Jesus Christ.

Pneuma. A Greek word (πνεῦμα) meaning "spirit," "breath," or "wind." In the New Testament, pneuma can refer to the Holy Spirit, the human spirit, or various other spiritual beings. (See Chapter 6.)

Postmortem Opportunity. The view that those who die without saving faith in Christ may still receive a genuine opportunity to respond to Him after death. I argue that this opportunity may come during the dying process, in the intermediate state, and/or at the final judgment, and that it is offered to all the unsaved without exception. (This is the central thesis of the book.)

Premillennialism. The eschatological view that Christ's second coming will precede a literal thousand-year reign of Christ on earth (Revelation 20). My own position is a form of premillennialism somewhere between pre-wrath and post-tribulational rapture.

Property Dualism. The view that while the human person is one substance (typically physical), mental properties are genuinely distinct from and irreducible to physical properties. Property dualism affirms two kinds of properties without affirming two kinds of substances — and so it is weaker than the substance dualism I defend. (See Chapter 7.)

Pseudoevangelized. A term used by James Beilby (and adopted in this book) for people who heard a distorted, incomplete, abusive, or culturally corrupted "gospel" that did not give them a real chance to embrace the true Christ. They are technically "evangelized" only on paper. (See Chapter 4.)

Psyche. A Greek word (ψυχή) often translated "soul" or "life." Like nephesh, its meaning ranges from the whole person to the inner life of the self. (See Chapter 6.)

Purgatory. In Roman Catholic theology, an intermediate state in which already-saved persons are purified of remaining temporal effects of sin before entering heaven. Postmortem opportunity is not the same as purgatory: postmortem opportunity concerns the unsaved receiving a chance to come to faith, not the post-conversion purification of the saved. (See Chapter 32.)

R

Restrictivism. See Exclusivism (Restrictivism).

Ruach. A Hebrew word (רוּחַ) meaning "spirit," "breath," or "wind." Like the Greek pneuma, it can refer to the Spirit of God, the human spirit, or simply breath or wind. (See Chapter 6.)

S

Second Death. A phrase used in Revelation (2:11; 20:6, 14; 21:8) for the final, ultimate fate of the unrepentant. Conditionalists understand it as final destruction (annihilation); traditionalists understand it as eternal conscious separation; universalists understand it as the final purging away of the old self before resurrection life. (See Chapter 21.)

Sheol. A Hebrew word (שְׁאוֹל) for the realm of the dead in the Old Testament. It is sometimes translated "grave," "pit," or "underworld" and is the rough Old Testament equivalent of the New Testament Hades. (See Chapter 17.)

Soteriology. The branch of theology that studies salvation — what it is, how it is accomplished, and how it is received.

Soul Sleep. The view that between physical death and the bodily resurrection, the dead are unconscious — either because the soul sleeps or because there is no conscious soul to be aware. I reject this view and affirm a conscious intermediate state. (See Chapter 9.)

Substance Dualism. The view that the human person consists of two distinct kinds of substance — a physical body and an immaterial soul or mind — and that the soul, in principle, can exist without the body. This is the view I defend, with strong support from veridical NDE evidence. (See Chapters 6–8.)

T

Tartarus. A Greek word (Τάρταρος) used once in the New Testament (2 Peter 2:4) for the place where certain rebellious angels are held in chains awaiting judgment. In Greek mythology, Tartarus was the deepest part of the underworld; in Scripture, it appears as a place of confinement for fallen spiritual beings. (See Chapter 21.)

Theosis. A Greek term (θέωσις), central to Eastern Orthodox theology, meaning "deification" or becoming "partakers of the divine nature" (2 Peter 1:4). It refers to the lifelong (and finally eternal) process by which the redeemed are increasingly transformed into the likeness of Christ — not by becoming God, but by being filled with His life. (See Chapter 26.)

Timōria. See Kolasis vs. Timōria.

Tsedaka. A Hebrew word (צְדָקָה) often translated "righteousness" or "justice." It carries the rich connotation not just of legal correctness but of right relationships, covenant faithfulness, and the rescue or restoration of the wronged. God's tsedaka is therefore saving, not merely punitive.

U

Universalism, Biblical/Conservative. The view that all persons will ultimately be saved through personal faith in Jesus Christ, without God overriding their free will. This view affirms the unique saving work of Christ, the necessity of personal faith, the reality of free will, and a real (though not unending) postmortem judgment. Robin Parry, Thomas Talbott, and Andrew Hronich are representative defenders. (See Chapter 33.)

Universalism, Contingent/Hopeful. The view that we may hope (but cannot definitively assert) that all will be saved. Often associated with Hans Urs von Balthasar's "dare we hope" formulation, though biblical universalists usually press for a more confident affirmation than mere hope.

Universalism, Necessitarian. The view that God must save all because of His nature, typically paired with the rejection of libertarian free will. I reject this version because I believe it overrides genuine human freedom. (See Chapter 33.)

Universalism, Pluralistic. The view that all religions are roughly equal paths to God and that all will be saved regardless of any specific faith in Christ. This is not the position the book defends; biblical universalism, by contrast, insists that all who are finally saved are saved through personal faith in Jesus.

V

Veridical NDE. A near-death experience containing verifiable elements — accurate perceptions of events occurring while the subject was clinically dead, unconscious, or otherwise unable to perceive them by ordinary means. Veridical NDEs play an important role in the case for substance dualism developed in this book. (See Chapter 5.)